Semantics – Meaning, Types of Meaning, Ambiguity, Sense & Reference
Semantics is the branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. It explains how language conveys ideas, emotions and information, and how meaning changes depending on context and usage.
1. What is Semantics?
Semantics deals with:
- the meaning of linguistic expressions
- relationship between words
- how sentences express propositions
- how meaning can be literal or implied
It focuses on what language means rather than how it is used.
2. Types of Meaning
Different linguists classify meaning differently. One of the most widely used classifications is by I. A. Richards and Geoffrey Leech.
2.1 I.A. Richards – Four Kinds of Meaning
- Sense – basic dictionary meaning
- Feeling – emotional or attitudinal meaning
- Tone – speaker’s attitude toward listener
- Intention – purpose of the message
2.2 Geoffrey Leech – Seven Types of Meaning
- 1. Conceptual Meaning – core, logical meaning (dog = four-legged domestic animal)
- 2. Connotative Meaning – associations, ideas, emotions
- 3. Social Meaning – indicates social setting (formal/informal)
- 4. Affective Meaning – speaker’s attitude and feelings
- 5. Reflected Meaning – associated with taboo or secondary meanings
- 6. Collocative Meaning – associated with typical word combinations (pretty girl, handsome man)
- 7. Thematic Meaning – emphasis depending on word order
3. Lexical Semantics
Lexical Semantics deals with meaning at the word level. It focuses on how words relate to each other.
3.1 Lexical Relations
1. Synonymy
Words with similar meanings (big/large).
2. Antonymy
Opposites (hot/cold).
3. Homonymy
Same sound/spelling, different meanings (bank: riverbank / bank: money).
4. Homophones
Same sound, different spelling (sea/see).
5. Homographs
Same spelling, different sound/meaning (lead: to guide / lead: metal).
6. Polysemy
One word with multiple related meanings (head of body / head of department).
7. Hyponymy
Relationship of class and member.
- rose, lily → flower
8. Meronymy
Part-whole relation (wheel → car).
4. Sentence Semantics
Analyses how meaning is constructed in sentences.
4.1 Proposition
The basic meaning or idea expressed by a sentence.
4.2 Entailment
If A is true, then B must also be true.
Example: “John killed the snake” entails “The snake is dead.”
4.3 Presupposition
Background assumption required for a sentence to be meaningful.
Example: “John stopped smoking.” → He used to smoke.
4.4 Ambiguity
A sentence or word is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning.
Types of Ambiguity
- Lexical Ambiguity – one word, many meanings (bank)
- Structural Ambiguity – sentence structure creates two meanings
Example: “I saw the man with a telescope.” (Who has the telescope?)
5. Sense and Reference
5.1 Sense
The meaning of a linguistic expression within the language. A word’s place in the semantic network.
5.2 Reference
The actual object or person in the real world that the word refers to.
Example:
Sense of “dog” = concept of dog
Reference = the actual animal you point to.
6. Componential Analysis
Breaking down meaning into basic components (features).
Example:
| Word | Features |
|---|---|
| Boy | +Human, +Male, –Adult |
| Man | +Human, +Male, +Adult |
7. Semantic Change (Change in Meaning)
- Broadening – Holiday (holy day → any vacation)
- Narrowing – Meat (any food → animal flesh)
- Amelioration – Knight (servant → noble warrior)
- Pejoration – Villain (farm worker → evil person)
- Shift – Mouse (animal → computer device)
8. Pragmatics vs Semantics (Quick Difference)
| Semantics | Pragmatics |
|---|---|
| Meaning in language | Meaning in context |
| Literal interpretation | Intended interpretation |
| Independent of speaker | Depends on speaker, situation |
9. Why Study Semantics?
- Improves language teaching
- Helps interpret literature
- Useful for linguistic exams
- Reduces ambiguity
- Strengthens vocabulary understanding
Semantics reveals how words and sentences create meaning and how language reflects the complexity of the human mind.
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